THE SANSKRIT CONNECTION - MT. NEMRUT, TURKEY

The 7000-ft high Mt. Nemrut in Turkey is today a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Historically, it was the location of King Antiochus's temple sanctuary, which he constructed in 62 BC. The temple sanctuary once housed deities, but at some point, the idols were broken, their heads intentionally sliced off, which now lie strewn all over the site. It is perhaps for this reason that the site may have acquired the name Nemrut, which may be explained by the Sanskrit 'nimridh' (निमृद्),  'crusher' or 'destroyer'.

Traditionally, it is believed that the mountain is named after the Biblical king Nimrod, the great hunter. He was the son of Cush, grandson of Ham and the great-grandson of Noah. He is known to have established fire worship and idol worship in the region. Cush, Ham and Noah have often been associated with the Indic Kush, Rama and Manu.

Ancient Indian texts trace predecessors of Lord Rama, who ruled India from the city of Ayodhya, back to Manu, the first man. Lord Rama had two sons, Kusha (Cush) and Lava. Kusha had a great-great-grandson called Nabhas. It is said that Kusha is the same as Cush. 

The Backdrop:

King Antiochus's name, before he became king, was Mithridate, named after the Vedic god Mitra, also called Mithira in its distorted form. The Vedic god Mitra's was extensively worshipped by Mithridate's ancestors, the successors of the Mitanni kings who ruled Mesopotamia from 1500 BC onwards. This information is attested by the fact that the Vedic gods Mitra as well as Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are all invoked in two treaties found in Hattusa, between the kings Sattiwaza of Mitanni and Supiluliuma of the Hittites. However, over time the names were distorted and took a different form.

The distorted names have no meaning in any language, while the original Sanskrit names have clear meanings. Mitra means (friend). Mitra became Mithira and appears as Mazda in the Zoroastrian tradition. Varuna became Tarruza. In Hindu tradition, the theonym Váruṇa (वरुण) is described as a derivation from the verbal root 'vṛ' (to surround, cover or restrain. Indra means 'excellent' in Sanskrit but appears in Hittite texts as Innara, even though it had earlier appeared in their treaties as Indra.

Though Aryan Invasion Theory describes the Mittani as Indo-Iranians who went to India sometime after 1500 BC, the truth is that the Mittani worshipped the Vedic gods of India. The cultural invasion was in the opposite direction. With the decline of the Mittani, in Mesopotamia the Vedic god names took on different forms such as Mazda, Taruzza and Innara, while they still continue to be worshipped in India as Mitra, Varuna and Indra.

One of the most important cities of the Mittani Empire in 1500 BC was known as Nagar (नगर), Sanskrit for city.

One of the major cities of the Mittani Empire
was Nagar- Sanskrit for 'city'.

The religious sanctuary established on Mount Nemrut was part of King Antioch's political program to revive the traditions of his ancestors. He stressed his descent from the Achaemenids, who in the ancient Persian tradition were known as the Xsacas, a distortion of the word Sakas as mentioned in the Mahabharata; and the Greek Seleucids, the descendants of Seleucus. As for India, King Antioch's name was well known and mentioned in the edicts of Emperor Ashoka.

The Xsacas empire, known as the 1st Iranian Empire, was established by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. But Cyrus was the Hellenized name of the founder of the Xsacas Empire. His name was originally variously spelt as Kurus or Kuras or Kuruas.

Various Iranian etymologies have been proposed for this name, varying from Kuru being derived from the Indo-Aryan root *s(kau), meaning 'to humiliate', which is the same as Sanskrit 'skanda' (स्कन्द ) meaning 'attacker ', or skann (स्कन्न) fallen, or 'skandh' ( स्कन्ध ) battle. Other Iranian etymologies include linking the name Kurus to root 'kr' meaning to accomplish or do, and the derivation of Sanskrit root 'kr' (कृ) meaning 'to do'. Though the etymology of the name Kurus is possible through Indo-European languages, only Sanskrit can provide a cultural context.

The most likely etymology with scriptural support to back the claim lies in the Sanskrit name Kuru. The name first appears in the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII/14) of the Rig Veda. The Rig Veda clearly states that Kuru, as a country, was situated beyond the most northern range of the Himālaya; it is hence also known as Uttarakuru (North Kuru), often described as a country of everlasting happiness.

The Rig Veda also states that Uttarakuru along with Krivis (Panchala) together form the land of Vaikarana. This is the same as the Iranian region of Varkana and appears in the Behistun Inscription (522 BC). Varkana is s a historical region composed of the land south-east of the Caspian Sea in modern-day Iran and Turkmenistan. Verkā means "wolf" in Old Iranian, cf. Avestan vəhrkō, Gilaki and Mazandarani verk/verg, Modern Persian gorg, and Sanskrit vŗka (वृक).

Subhash Kak states, "Indians are generally unaware that Uttara Kuru beyond the Himalayas (it also included Iran) was one of the provinces of the Vedic Age (see the Aitareya Brahmana for details of kings). Atharvan texts were from this region."

Mount Nemrut lies south of Malatya (ancient name, Milidia), and 40 km north of Kahta and Adiyaman in Turkey. Malatya has been identified as 'Melid', an ancient city on the Tohma River, a tributary of the upper Euphrates rising in the Taurus Mountains. The name Melid and Milidia is described in Hittite texts, which mention that etymologically this area was named 'melid', meaning 'honey' in the Hittite language. That 'melid' is the same as Sanskrit 'madhul' (मधूल), also meaning 'honey' is of course obvious. But it is more than likely that this meaning of 'honey' was given to the word later and does not carry much weight.

It is perhaps prudent to look for the origins of the name Malatya in the ancient texts of India. And the name that crops up here is Mt. Malaya, of which Malatya may be a variation. We know the Hittites were aware of the Vedic god Indra. According to the ancient Puranic texts of India, Mt. Malaya was the mountain of Indra. There is also a bit of a connection here with King Nimrod. He was the great-grandson of Noah, the Vedic equivalent of Noah is Manu. According to the Matsya Purana, during the Great Flood, the giant boat of King Manu was perched after the deluge on the top of the Malaya Mountains. 

Malaya (माल्य) means garland, in this case a chain of mountains or a range.

Mt. Nemrud is located in the Taurus mountain range. This chain is a predominant feature of this land and terrain and has had a significant impact on its history. The Taurus chain is composed of several parallel ranges rimming and reaching the Mediterranean, for about 1,500 km, from Muğla in the west to Lake Van in the east. The summits often exceed 10,000 feet, the highest nonvolcanic peak being 12,323 feet, the Aladağ—north of Adana. The average width of the range is 150 km, and it forms a barrier to the Anatolian plateau. To the northeast is the extension of the range, called the Anti-Taurus.

Nearby was the town of Adiyaman. Mainstream historians believe that the city was earlier known as Hisn-Mansur and derives from the name of the Umayyad Emir Mansur ibn Jawana, who was killed by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur in this region in 758 AD. Both were named Mansurs, but one must look at the name of Emir Mansur's father, which was Jawana. Jawana is a variation of Yamana and Yavana. And therefore, one can conclude that the name Adiyaman precedes Hisn-Mansur. The city named after Emir Mansur's father Jawana. Second, Yavana is Sanskrit for Greek - more precisely, for Ionian -one of the major tribes of the Greeks, and therefore one must look at a Greek connection to the antecedents of Yawana. As for Sanskrit, Adi (आदि) translates as 'the beginning' or 'commencement'. 'Yaman' (यामन्) translates as 'the approach to God'.

King Antiochus wanted to see his name and that of his dynasty preserved. His tomb was built in order for his vassals to worship him after his death. A Greek inscription reveals that he was buried at Nemrut in the temple sanctuary surrounded by colossal statues of Gods, as a sign of his parity with the Gods. The fact that the mountain is named Nemrut (नमृत), which means 'not dead' or 'alive' in Sanskrit, is therefore not surprising.

King Antiochus' original name was Mithridate; he assumed the name Antiochus when he ascended the throne. The word Mitra (मित्र) means 'friend' or 'ally'. 'Datta' (दत्त), meaning 'giver' or 'the honoured one', and often kings in India would add 'datta' to their names as an achievement epithet.

There are interesting references to King Antiochus in the Sanskrit inscriptions of ancient sites in India. The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany, Volume 27, 1838, in the chapter named 'Important Historical Discoveries in the Inscriptions of India', page 208, mentions Sanskrit shlokas (verses) about King Antiochus. The shlokas were found in the ancient rock inscriptions of Girnar in Gujarat and, in the rock inscriptions of Dhauli, in Cuttack, in Orissa (now Odisha) state of India.

Here is a translation from an ancient edict of Emperor Ashoka of India which makes a passing reference to King Antiochus. Of course the verse is about the glory of Emperor Ashoka and his fame around the world and the knowledge emanating from India being passed around to other civilisations, but it mentions King Antiochus nevertheless. Here it is:

"Everywhere withing the conquered provinces of Raja Priyadarshi (Ashoka), the beloved of the Gods, as well as in parts occupied by the faithful, such as the Cholas, ....the Ketalputras, or even as far as Tambapanni (Sri Lanka) ..... and moreover, the dominion of Antiochus the Greek, everywhere, the Heaven-Beloved, Raja Priyadarshi's double system of Medical Aid is established....".

Check King Antiochus in Emperor Ashoka's Edicts for the original verses.

Suggested Readings:

1. Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.). Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts: Tavernier, Jan : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive

1. The Vishnu Purana: Book II: Chapter III (sacred-texts.com)
2. The Hittites, Mysterious People Of A Thousand Gods - Collapse Of The Hittite Empire - Ancient Pages
3. Past Remembering: What happened to Hattusas and the Hittites? (betterthanufos.blogspot.com)
4. hittite capital Nagar - Search (bing.com)
5. Hittite new empire (1430 – 1200 BC) | Short history website
6. El Imperio hitita, un pueblo legendario que hizo frente a Egipto (khronoshistoria.com)
7. Hittite new empire (1430 – 1200 BC) | Short history website
8. Old Hittite Kingdom 1650-1460 BC | Short history website
9. The Hittite Empire – Brewminate: A Bold Blend of News and Ideas
10. HITTITE MYTHOLOGY: THE MOUNTAIN GOD AND THE DEER | Balladeer's Blog (glitternight.com)
11. Malaya Mountains - Wikipedia

THE 'TEPUIS' OF VENEZUELA - THE SANSKRIT CONNECTION

The Global Footprint of Sanskrit: From the Himalayas to the Amazonian Tepuis

The Tepuis are the majestic, table-top mountains that dominate the landscape of the Guiana Highlands in Venezuela, South America. In the ancient tongue of the Pemon—the indigenous people who have inhabited the Gran Sabana region for millennia—the word tepui directly translates to "house of the gods." This choice of words reflects a profound spiritual reverence for these towering, cloud-shrouded plateaus. Intriguingly, this concept echoes an ancient linguistic and cultural framework born thousands of miles away in the Indian subcontinent, pointing toward the all-pervasive historical reach of the Sanskrit language.

In Sanskrit, the root word tap (तप्) signifies austerity, penance, and intense spiritual meditation. This root is famously immortalised in Tapovan (तपोवन)—a sacred compound uniting tap with vana (वन), meaning "forest." Historically, a tapovan refers to the remote, pristine sanctuaries nestled deep within the Himalayan mountain range. In ancient times, much as it remains true in India today, sages, mystics, and rishis regularly retired to these high, isolated hills and mountains to perform tap (meditation). To these ascetics, just as to the Pemon people, these grand elevations were the literal dwellings of divine energy.

The Transcontinental Legacy of Tap and Tepe

Cognates of the Sanskrit tap and its variants appear consistently across the names of numerous ancient, sacred hills and mountains throughout the Americas, particularly in Mexico. Notable examples include historical sites and regions such as Tepatitlán, Tuxtepec, Tepec, Tepic, Mazatepec, Tepetatas, Tepantita, Tepetzintla, Tepuste, Tepetlix, and Tepetlalco. This global linguistic thread is not restricted to the Americas; even in Turkey, at the site of Göbekli Tepe—widely regarded as one of the oldest temple complexes in human history—the word Tepe makes a defining appearance.

In classical Sanskrit, any sacred place, including holy hills, is known as Tapoda (तपोद). For millennia, the peaks of the Himalayas served as the premier global centres for tap or tapasya. Linguists and researchers, including the independent scholar Gene Matlock, have linked the global architectural and geographic suffix tepe or tepui to the Sanskrit word stupa (स्तूप)—which originally meant a "heap," "pile," or "mound" long before it became strictly associated with Buddhist architectural monuments. Over centuries of linguistic evolution and regional shifts across continents, phonetic distortions frequently caused the dropping of the initial "s" syllable, transforming stupa into tupa, tepe, and tepui.

Decoding the Toponyms of Venezuela

When we look closer at the specific names of individual Tepuis in Venezuela, the phonetic and semantic alignments with Sanskrit become even more startling:

• Auyán-tepui: Standing as one of the largest plateaus in Venezuela, covering an immense area of roughly 700 square kilometres, its prefix mirrors the Sanskrit word Aunnatya (औन्नत्य), which precisely translates to "height," "elevation," or "eminence."
• Sari-Sariñama: This famous tepui is globally renowned for its colossal, water-filled sinkholes and massive underground water cascades. In Sanskrit, the root word sara (सर) denotes a "spring," "fluid," "waterfall," or a "cascade of water." Interestingly, this exact root reappears across the world in places like Saratoga, a famous water-spring town in New York, USA.
• Tepui Neblina & Tepui Autana: The linguistic trail deepens with Neblina, which closely aligns with the Sanskrit Nabha (नभ), meaning "sky" or "mist." Similarly, Autana mirrors the Sanskrit word Audana (ओदन), which carries traditional connotations linked to moisture, clouds, and sustenance.

An Untapped Historical Frontier

Whether the ancient inhabitants of Venezuela’s Gran Sabana maintained direct, ancient maritime or cultural links with the Indic civilisation of Asia remains a subject for deeper empirical study. However, the sheer density of these geographical and conceptual matches suggests that the footprint of Sanskrit is far more global than modern history standardly acknowledges. These striking toponyms point to a shared ancient heritage—one that contemporary researchers and historians may find remarkably fertile ground to explore.

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______________________________________________________--Original DRAFT: 

The tepuis are the table-top mountains of the Guiana Highlands of Venezuela in South America. In the ancient Native tongue of the Pemon, the indigenous people who inhabited the Grana Sabana region of Venezuela, the word 'tepui' means 'house of the gods'.

In Sanskrit, the root word 'tap' (तप्) means austerity, penance and is often used in reference to the sacred sites, such as the many 'Tapovans' (तपोवन) in the Himalayan mountain range. Tapovan is a combination of the Sanskrit root word 'tap' (तप्) meaning 'sacred, penance, meditation, etc.' and 'vana' (वन) meaning 'forest'. In ancient times, and this is true of India even today, sages and rishis retire to the hills and mountains for 'tap' (meditation).

Cognates of the Sanskrit 'tap' appear in names of many ancient holy hills and mountain names in South America, especially in Mexico. Some of these are Tepatit·n, Tuxtepec, Tepec, Tepic, Mazatepec, Tepetatas, Tepantita, Tepetzintla, Tepuste, Tepetlix and Tepetlalco. (These names are from the research done by Gene Matlock. Even in Turkey, in the name Göbekli Tepe, one of the most ancient sites in the world, the word Tepe makes an appearance.

In Sanskrit, any sacred place, including hills, is known as Tapod (तपोद). In ancient India, the hills of the Himalayas were the centres of 'tap' or 'tapasya', that is, sacred meditation. Scholars such as Gene Matlock have linked the word 'tepe' to the Sanskrit 'stupa' (स्तूप), which means a 'heap' or a 'pile' or a 'mound'. It was later that the word 'stupa' came to be associated with Buddhist 'stupa' structures. In some Sanskrit-derived languages, distortions caused the dropping of the initial 's' syllable.

One of the largest known Tepuis in Venezuela is the 'Auyantepuis'. It has an area of about 700 square kms. In Sanskrit, the word Aunantaya (औन्नत्य) means 'height' or 'elevation'.

There is another tepuis by the name of 'Sari-sarinama', famous for its water cascades and water sinkholes. In Sanskrit, the word 'sara' (सर) means a 'spring', it also means 'fluid', 'waterfall', and 'cascade of water'. Incidentally, the word 'sara' also makes an appearance in the name of the water-springs town of 'Saratoga' in New York, USA.

Whether the ancient inhabitants of the Gran Sabana area in Venezuela had any links to Asia and Sanskrit is difficult to say, but there are many more ancient place names such as Tepuis Neblina, {Sanskrit Nabha (नभ) - meaning 'sky'} or Tepuis Autana, {Sanskrit Audana (ओदन) meaning 'cloud'} which points to the fact that maybe there was a link between the ancient peoples of India and Venezuela which researchers today may find worth exploring.